LEGAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

LEGAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS - Essay Example True indeed as the article asserts, Russia has proved to be a developing growth market whose legal environment has constantly changed in the recent past. The country has in the recent past experienced an increase in activities involving corporate transactions of different types including not only public listings, but also mergers, acquisitions and joint ventures, consolidation and also restructuring. The result of these development have been far reaching especially from the legal front telling from the rising number of high profile disputes involving mostly Russian parties who numerous studies have indicated to be favoring either the English courts or other arbitration venues outside Russia for resolution of the disputes. This article despite not being very comprehensive in nature, the opinions provided has been presented in quite a general way making it worth for reference by any interested persons. While discussing the changing legal environment, the current state of affairs in Rus sia has been clearly brought out. Among the issues analyzed include the various changes to the Russian legislation and the impacts which they may have. One notable effect discussed on the article is the non appreciation of Russia to what the country regards as interference by foreign courts which is a clear indicator of the importance of the companies that wish to enter into transactions relating to business in Russia having a clear understanding of the local practical, legal and procedural issues (White & Case, 2012). The article has also been very effective in identifying the various trends that are associated with joint venture and the other transactions in Russia. Truly as asserted by Andrei Dontsov in the article that most offshore JVs are usually governed by an English law shareholder agreement, this is indeed a true reflection of what is on the ground as widely documented by different research findings on the topic. The issue of upcoming changes in Russian law has been well a nalyzed in the article. The article has been successful in outlining the various amendments to the Russian Civil Code that are under consideration by the Russian parliament whose main aim is to introduce new legal concepts familiar to lawyers from other jurisdictions (White & Case, 2012). While analyzing the issues to do with enforcing one’s rights as regards to Russia-related transactions, the article has been very successful in reiterating the importance of the investors doing business in Russia to keenly following the various developments with high likelihood of impacting the investor’s rights in instances where there may arise disagreements between the parties. This has been clearly brought out in the article especially to the extent where there is no appreciation of interferences and the implementation of various measures that are mainly aimed at addressing the interferences. The article has also been very successful in addressing the issues regarding the enforcem ent against assets within Russia. Among the issues that have clearly come out include whether arbitration can be relied upon to resolve disputes and key issue of concern being there can be enforcement of arbitration award obtained outside Russia (White & Case, 2012). Another issue of concern that the article clearly brought out was mostly related to one-sided optional dispute resolution clauses that is mostly common in finance transactions while at the same time operating to give the different parties

The Effect of Excessive Alcohol Consumption Research Paper

The Effect of Excessive Alcohol Consumption - Research Paper Example The researcher states that excessive alcoholism verses performance among college and university students literature contains results of many research projects that were contacted over a period of time. It is evident that the total number of such publications is quite overwhelming, although this does not mean that all the pertinent publication were reviewed, though none of those that were applicable and useful to this work were excluded intentionally. Difficulties that were encountered in review of literature are an attempt to develop the relationship between the two parameters. Initially there has been an attempt to quantify the existing relationship between the heavy alcohol consumption and life frustrations, as well as cigarette smoking and alcoholism by a wide range of researchers. According to AKsir & Charles; Boston Coalition; Baer; Core Institute, showed that based on the DSM-IV-TR, the addiction to alcohol is characterized by various behavioral, psychological and physiological elements. The commonality of these studies is that alcohol is characterized by incidences of recurrent alcohol intake, which is accompanied by the failure to fulfil roles and responsibilities, such as domestic and job responsibilities. Secondly, this study showed that addiction is characterized by increased use of alcohol in the situations that are considered to be physically hazardous, for instance, driving under the influence of alcohol. In other independent studies Babo, Borsari and Carey found that alcohol abuse is also characterized by the increased encounters with legal problems. This study, as well showed that alcohol abuse is also characterized by the continued alcohol abuse, even when victims are aware of the inherent problems such as domestic squabbles that they cause. In yet another study, Bailey, Fiore, and Cohen carried out a research on co morbidity and noted that alcohol abuse is associated with adverse health risks and social consequences relating to the alcohol int oxication, dependency characteristics, as well as its toxicity. Reporting on the treatment of Alcohol abuse, among college students, APA.

Pavlovian Conditioning’s Cause and Effect Relationship With Overdose Essay Example for Free

Pavlovian Conditioning’s Cause and Effect Relationship With Overdose Essay Summary: Harm Reduction Journal Gerevich, Bacskai, Farkas, and Danics’ case report studied if Pavlovian conditioning can directly relate to death from overdose. The case followed a young that had been treated multiple times for an addiction to heroin. As a result for the multiple treatments studies have shown that drug overdose occurs most frequently when the patient accustomed to the drug gives up its use then after a while attempts to continue addictive behavior with the same dose before withdrawal. His daily dose had not differed even the fatal overdose, thus proving the conditioned tolerance failed to operate. This indicates that morphine concentrations measured in cases of drug related death do not differ substantially form those measured in cases where the outcome is not fatal. Conditioning can contribute to prevention of fatal cases however, also contribute to cases of tolerance becoming fatal. Summary: Pavlovian conditioning and Drug Overdose: When Tolerance Fails  Siegel’s performed a study of that which Pavlovian conditioning and drug overdose play an important and integral relationship with one another. Siegel researched and studied cases of overdose and examined rats injected with an opiate. He observed that Pavlovian conditioning contributes to tolerance when the user begins to make observations of the effects of the drug in the presence of cues that were previously paired with the drug. Two stimuli are present and one will presumably predict the other, this includes the drug. When the tolerance the chance for overdose increases as well. The unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s conditioning is the effect of the drug.  This conditioning makes relapsing common because of the craving for unconditioned stimulus. It is necessary to allow extinction the cues that are presented with the drug in order for recovery. Overdose doesn’t necessarily have to c ome from the conditioning process but many experiments verify a higher risk if conditions are present. In 1927 Ivan Pavlov studied a direct relationship between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. As the result of as series of conditionings, Pavlov discovered that the conditioned stimulus is able to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus over a period of time. The relationship of the two is evident and a major factor in fatal overdoses, whether in drug overdose or binge drinking. The correlation between classic conditioning and overdose can be observed where tolerance fails. If one were to treat an addiction, one must acknowledge the conditioning process and eliminate conditioned cues related with the drug (Bacskai, Danics, Farkas Gerevich, 2005). Cases where tolerance failed can be directly found in classical conditioning involved with drug or drinking paired cues and environmental cues as well as associated with the addiction, therefore the cue must be eliminated in order for proper recovery. Tolerance plays a crucial role in overdose as well as addiction. Overdose becomes fatal when tolerance does not occur. According to Siegel, â€Å"Evidence that drug tolerance depends not only upon experience with the drug but also experience with the drug-paired cues† (p. 505, 2001). Addicts suffer from overdose primarily because they do not show the level of tolerance that they expect in drug-experienced individuals (Siegel, 2001). Those suffering with addiction have become conditioned not only physically, but also emotionally in need of the high that is released with a substance. The addiction is the conditioned stimulus, which leaves room for the effects of the drug or drink to be the unconditioned stimulus. Siegel found that events that occur during the drug administration directly correspond to a Pavlovian conditioning trial (2001). Over time the effects become a conditioned response in which they will relate the experience of the high as a cue. Cues are dangerous when de aling with conditioning and treatment. Cues accompanying the drug effect function as CSs, and the direct drug effect constitutes the UCS. Prior to any learning, this UCS elicits responses- UCRs- that compensate for drug-induced disturbances. After some pairings of the pre-drugs CS and pharmacological UCS, the drug compensatory response are elicited by drug-paired stimuli as CRs (Siegel, 2001, p. 505). Thus, in approach to treatment prior to an overdose, the cues must be eliminated. In the study by Siegel, it is studied that drugs and alcohol in particular will have a greater impact if they are administered in the presence of unique cues rather than in the presence of predictable cues that it is associated with (2011). In Bacskai, Danics, Farkas and Gerevich study, they followed the life of an addict which overdosed and claimed that the user could not recover properly due to learned conditioning regarding his heroin addiction. In the autopsy report they were able to clarify that his over dosage was the exact same as his no rmal dosage of .05mg/L. â€Å"The fatal consequences of the heroin injection may have been caused by the failure in the action of conditioned tolerance† (Bacskai, Danics, Farkas Gerevich, 2005). Environmental cues are also factors of conditioning that are paired with cases of overdose. The term tolerance situational-specificity, according to Siegel, results because we prepare ourselves in advance for the psychological changes produced by the drug when we are provided with certain cues that a drug or drink can imminent (2011). An example can be taken from Shapiro and Nathan in1986 when they studied the relationship between environmental cues and substance ingested. They had two groups, one that drank at home and one that drank in the lab environment. After 10 days they reversed the environment for the remaining participants. Upon the discovery they realized that those who had consumed alcohol in the lab environment were less affected in their performance tasks than those who consumed alcohol in the home environment. This demonstrating that tolerance was situationally precise to the environment in which the alcohol was once consumed. Environmental cues can be anywhere from a p arty to a room in a house. They can also be an atmosphere or specific type of people. It is important to identify these cues apart from the actual addiction. Now that cues can be identified separate from the drug of drink, the conditioned  response must be eliminated in order to treat recovery. Pavlov discovered that in order to eliminate a behavior, it is necessary to remove or substitute the conditioned stimulus. In order to eliminate any such cue, one must identify the cues present. In severe cases one might create a lesion in the hippocampal area located in the brain but it is not completely necessary. The most likely case in elimination is when a conditioned response becomes extinct. In order for extinction to occur the conditioned stimulus must be presented without the unconditioned stimulus. An example of a drug or drinking paired cue could be a positive or negative factor, like vomiting or, a party like environment. The cue can be created with induced vomiting when the drug or alcohol is present. This creates a fear tactic, which becomes associated with the addiction and thus making one afraid of the substance. Environmental cues can be both simple and difficult to eliminate. One must be taken out of his or hers setting of addiction. This could mean a living room, bathroom, party scene, work scene, or anywhere that the drug or drinking is associated with. These environments can cause pr essure in the subconscious toward the substance. Remember the Shapiro and Nathan experiment in1986; environment does affect one’s attitude toward the addiction. In Siegel’s 2001 study he discovered that when heroin was injected in an unfamiliar place the user is not as dangerous or place to overdose. The dangers of not eliminating cues can allow tolerance to take its role until overdose occurs. â€Å"Users familiar with the concept of conditioned place preference could have greater chances of survival than those who are not aware of it† (Bacskai, Danics, Farkas Gerevich, 2005). Demonstrating that it is necessary for the cues to be eliminated to reduce the risk of overdose. Therefore, Pavlov’s conditioning has a direct and present relationship involved in overdose cases. Conditioning turns unconditioned stimulus into conditioned responses. The responses can act as cues, which can trigger the addiction. Cues can be both drug, or drinking paired and environmentally stimulated. Tolerance has been proven to fail in fatal cases of overdose due to classical conditioning. In order to recover properly these cues must be eliminated. Treatments can include anything from fear tactics, to removing  the entire substance. Severe cases of addiction, which relate to overdose can be treated with lesions in the brain. References Gerevich, J., Bacskai, E., Farkas, L., Danics, Z. (2005). A case report: Pavlovian conditioning as a risk factor of heroin â€Å"overdose† death. Harm Reduction Journal, 2. Siegel, S. (2011). The Four-Loko Effect. Perspective on Psychological Science, 6, 357-361. Siegel, S. (2001). Pavlovian conditioning and drug overdose: When tolerance fails. Addiction Research and Theory, 9, 503-513. Shapiro, A. P., Nathan, P. E. (1986). Human tolerance to alcohol† The role of Pavlovian conditioning processes. Psychopharmacology, 88, 90, 95.

A Business Plan for Just In Time Caring Ltd.

A Business Plan for Just In Time Caring Ltd. CONTENTS Executive Summary Objectives Mission Keys to Success Organization Summary Company Ownership Location and Facilities Services Management Summary Market Analysis Target Market Other Service Providers Contact US EXECUTIVE SUMMARY JUST IN TIME CARING LTD is Health and Safety Consultancy designed to help reduce accidents at work, increase productivity, enhance employee morale and help businesses to retain high quality employees. Proper Risk Management is about practical steps to protect people from real harm, not bureaucratic back covering. JITCL keeping in mind the need of work place health and safety in United Kingdom, will offer professional services to every size of business no matter from a small shop to corporate clients. OBJECTIVES The objectives of JITCL are: †¢Establish healthy and safe systems of work for employees. †¢Increase revenue, by expanding the Target Market to nearby areas in quarter 4 of Year 1. †¢Increase client base, by getting efficient and effective Marketing Strategy. †¢Implement new advertising campaign. †¢To generate sufficient profit to finance future growth and to provide the resources needed to achieve the other objectives of the company and its owner. †¢To grow the business at a rate that is both challenging and manageable, leading the market with innovation and adaptability MISSION The short term objective is to start this company quickly and inexpensively, with a minimum of debt. The long term objective is to grow the company into a stable and profitable entity that the owner can easily and comfortably manage. KEYS TO SUCCESS JITCL’s keys to success and critical factors for the next three years are: Development and implementation of a successful marketing strategy/plan to employers. Recruitment of experienced medical and administrative talent. Commitment to continuously improve the quality of service. Demonstrate a financial return on investment. Commitment from Senior Management ORGANISATION SUMMARY JUST IN TIME CARING LTD is committed to providing customized services to meet the occupational health and safety needs of area businesses and industries in its target market. JITCL is based on the belief that healthy employees are more productive and efficient. For this reason, it provides wellness strategies and programs to businesses. This combines promotion of total healthbody, mind and spiritdesigned to facilitate positive lifestyle changes of a companys work force. COMPANY OWNERSHIP JUST IN TIME CARING LTD was established in February 2014. The company is located in Slough and was established by Mr Mohammad Atiq. Mr Mohammad Atiq is an active director and 100% shareholder in the company. He is entitled Occupational Health Adviser. Mr Atiq holds a degree in Occupational Health and Safety from Cardiff Metropolitan University. Being a graduate and having experience in this field, he has an aptitude to deliver remarkable skills in his diverse field to make a space for himself and his company. LOCATION AND FACILITIES JITCL provides services between 9-5 7 days a week. The office hours are 9am to 5pm Monday to Friday. JITCL will look to offer Health and Safety programs at the employers’ workplace, once the minimum employee participation requirements are met. JITCL’s Head Office is currently located at 150 WELLINGTON STREET, SLOUGH, SL1 1RP. The Company will work from the customers’ workplace, depending on the need of the customer. SERVICES JITCL is convinced that the well-being of client/company is imperative to the health of our community. JITCL understands that accidents, illnesses, and sick days directly affect business efficiency, morale and profit. Maintaining healthy employees translates into a more productive work force. JITCL exists to encourage employees to set personal health improvement goals while reinforcing good principles. We will develop a strategy with each customer so that it best suits the needs of each individual employer. The program will be designed to facilitate positive lifestyle changes in a company’s employees. Our services will include (but are not limited to) the following: Inspection of workplace areas to ensure compliance with health and safety legislation. Preparing health and safety policies and procedure. Assessing the work environment. Managing Risk at the workplace. Managing Major Industrial Accidents. Managing Occupational Accidents. Assessing the workplace safety and reporting to management with recommendation on reducing risk at workplace. Our program will aim to help companies achieve the following goals: Reduce employee healthcare costs. Improve health and safety in the workplace. Increase productivity. Enhance employee morale. Retain high quality employees. Create a positive return on investment. MANAGEMENT SUMMARY The management team will initially consist ofMr. Mohammad Atiq who is a Cardiff Metropolitan MSC Occupational Health and Safety graduate. MARKET ANALYSIS Companies are generally categorized in the following manner: Home Office Businesses – consisting 1-5 employees. Small Businesses – 5-50 employees Medium Businesses – 50 – 500 employees Large Businesses -500+ employees All employers, whatever the size of the business, must have the health and safety policy in place and it’s a continuous cycle that requires further improvements and implementation of new regulations of Health and Safety Law. The below cycle best describes it; Ref: http://www.snh.org.uk/uplandpathmanagement/3.1.shtml TARGET MARKET Currently the target market for JITCL will be the Small Businesses or the Home Office Businesses. The Reason for this being that most such business do not recognize that they have the need for our services yet, or are just starting out and need a service such as ours. After a couple of years and having built a client base, JITCL can then look to approaching Medium and large businesses and tailoring our marketing and sales strategy for this. OTHER SERVICE PROVIDERS Currently, there seems to be only few other companies that are providing the same services within a 10 mile radius. This means that there is ample opportunity to grow as there is lack of competition. The other companies under the Health Safety Consultancy are searched over the internet and listed below; Our Rivals in the business: Health Grace 10 Canada Rd, Slough, Berkshire, SL1 1SE Tel: 07865 988957 New Linc Healthcare Services 335a High St, Slough, Berkshire, SL1 1TX Tel: 01753 535921 Anntara Management Ltd P.O Box 3563, Slough, Berkshire, SL3 3BT Tel: 07831 512528 Aline Associates 28 Fairfield Rd, Burnham, Slough, Berkshire, SL1 8AH Tel: 01628 663722 Prisma Associates Ltd Woodfield Taplow Common Rd, Burnham, Slough, Berkshire, SL1 8LP Tel: 01628 602791 REFERENCE: http://www.yell.com/ucs/UcsSearchAction.do?keywords=health++safety+consultantslocation=SL1+1RPscrambleSeed=89257880searchType=M=bandedclarifyResults=ssm=1autocomplete=kw

Different Styles in Coaching :: essays research papers

Different Styles in Coaching No one is alike, everyone has there own way of doing things. For example, I was coached by two different basketball coaches in my high school years; both of whom had their own unique style of coaching. Coach Lira and Carla coached the same sport even though each had different strategies for their athletes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Coach Lira was forty years old and had coached for ten years. She coached for the same high school she played basketball at, and has a lot of experience in coaching as well as playing the game. Being on Varsity her sophomore year shows she is a good basketball player and knows the game well. Lira is considered a good coach because she can make a team win games. The relationship she had with her players was more like a teacher to a student. She wasn’t a friend figure. Being late was never an issue with her, she was always on time. Lira had many rules and was very strict. For example if you were late you would have to do one hundred pushups. During the games she would pick the players she liked over the players who deserved to play because of her short temper.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  She had workout practices. Every practice she made us do drills that would help us in a game. Making the players do 100 pushups and sit-ups before going through plays was very tiring. We would go through plays over and over until we got them down exactly they way she wanted them. We would practice every Saturday morning from 8:00 to 11:00. Are practices were different from regular practices because they were so intense. Lira took us to the championship game. Without her coaching, we would never have gone that far.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My other coach, named Carla, was 20 years old, still going to college with no experience in coaching or playing basketball. She wasn’t a very good basketball player herself. In high school she was on the team but was on the bench. Carla really didn’t know the game that well. Losing games made her a bad coach. Carla was not a coach; she was more like a friend. Being late to every practice made her irresponsible. One positive thing about her was she never picked favorites. In fact, the players thought she wasn’t strict enough. She didn’t set rules. No one was scared of her because she was too nice.

Adolph Coors :: Biography Biographies

Adolph Coors My Personal Interest: The Rise and Fall (Literally) of Adolph Coors After already sharing my thoughts of my family, and myself, I felt as though neither of my favorite personal interests would accomplish the task at hand. It was Saturday afternoon, and I still didn’t have a good personal interest topic to write about. I started mind-mapping, writing every topic I could think of, including: The Real Civil War; Mental Instability – Possession or Illness; Finding the Perfect Home – Mortgage and All; and even The lightning Capital: Why Here? Then I realize I must dismantle the subject, so as to fit it on only 3 or 4 pages. The project is becoming a lot tougher than I anticipated; I start scratching out ideas. A half hour later, I have a page with many scribbles, no topics, confusion, and thirst. I walk swiftly and irritably, to the refrigerator, open the door, and grab a cold, wet, Coors Light, tall can. I found my personal interest topic. There in my hand, I was holding history: â€Å"The Rise and Fall, Literally, of Ado lph Coors. I try to imagine the thoughts of Adolph Coors as he was plunging 6 stories to his death. How or why would he have fallen from a beautiful Virginia Beach hotel-room? In the past 9 years, the prohibition of 1920 had made life more difficult, but could Adolph’s desires and ambition end this way? Throughout his entire life he showed nothing less than a strong driving force in everything he attempted and accomplished. On February 4, 1847, Adolph was born in Barmen, Prussia. His parents passed away only 15 years later. Finding necessity for a quick occupation, Adolph started an apprenticeship at the Henry Wenker Brewery. The ambitious young man paid for his apprenticeship by working at the brewery as a bookkeeper. He completed his apprenticeship in a short three years, 1 year less than expected. This would be young Adolph’s first of many overachievements. After finishing his lessons, he worked at three other breweries in the area until 1868, when avoiding a military draft seemed necessary. He then left for the bright stars and stripes of America. Stowing away, he landed at Port Baltimore, Maryland. For the next 5 years, Adolph worked in several industries, ranging from gardening to his first love, brewing.

Random Sampling Techniques

There are many ways to select a random sample. Four of them are discussed below: Simple Random Sampling: In this sampling technique, each sample of the same size has the same probability of being selected. Such a sample is called a simple random sample. One way to select a simple random sample is by a lottery or drawing. For example, if we need to select 5 students from a class of 50, we write each of the 50 names on a separate piece of paper. Then, we place all 50 names in a hat and mix them thoroughly.Next, we draw 1 name randomly from the hat. We repeat this experiment four more times. The 5 drawn names make up a simple random sample. The second procedure to select a simple random sample is to use a table of random numbers, which has become an outdated procedure. In this age of technology, it is much easier to use a statistical package, such as Minitab, to select a simple random sample. Systematic Random Sampling: The simple random sampling procedure becomes very tedious if the si ze of the population is large.For example, if we need to select 150 households from a list of 45,000, it is very time consuming either to write the 45,000 names on pieces of paper or then select 150 households or to use a table of random numbers. In such cases, it is more convenient to use systematic random sampling. Stratified Random Sampling: Suppose we need to select a sample from the population of a city, and we want households with different income levels to be proportionately represented in the sample.In this case, instead of selecting a simple random sample or a systematic random sample, we may prefer to apply a different technique. First, we divide the whole population into different groups based on income levels. Thus, whenever we observe that a population differs widely in the possession of a characteristic, we may prefer to divide it into different strata and then select one sample from each stratum. We can divide the population on the basis of any characteristic, such as income, expenditure, sex, education, race, employment, or family size.Cluster Sampling: Sometimes the target population is scattered over a wide geographical area. Consequently, if a simple random sample is selected, it may be costly to contact each member of the sample. In such a case, we divide the population into different geographical groups or clusters and as a first step select a random sample of certain clusters from all clusters. We then take a random sample of certain elements from each selected cluster. For example, suppose we are to conduct a survey of households in the state f New York. First, we divide the whole state of New York into, say, 40 regions, which are called clusters or primary units. We make sure that all clusters are similar and, hence, representative of the population. We then select at random, say, 5 clusters from 40. Next, we randomly select certain households from each of these 5 clusters and conduct a survey of these selected households. This is calle d cluster sampling. Note that all clusters must be representative of the population. Random Sampling Techniques There are many ways to select a random sample. Four of them are discussed below: Simple Random Sampling: In this sampling technique, each sample of the same size has the same probability of being selected. Such a sample is called a simple random sample. One way to select a simple random sample is by a lottery or drawing. For example, if we need to select 5 students from a class of 50, we write each of the 50 names on a separate piece of paper. Then, we place all 50 names in a hat and mix them thoroughly.Next, we draw 1 name randomly from the hat. We repeat this experiment four more times. The 5 drawn names make up a simple random sample. The second procedure to select a simple random sample is to use a table of random numbers, which has become an outdated procedure. In this age of technology, it is much easier to use a statistical package, such as Minitab, to select a simple random sample. Systematic Random Sampling: The simple random sampling procedure becomes very tedious if the si ze of the population is large.For example, if we need to select 150 households from a list of 45,000, it is very time consuming either to write the 45,000 names on pieces of paper or then select 150 households or to use a table of random numbers. In such cases, it is more convenient to use systematic random sampling. Stratified Random Sampling: Suppose we need to select a sample from the population of a city, and we want households with different income levels to be proportionately represented in the sample.In this case, instead of selecting a simple random sample or a systematic random sample, we may prefer to apply a different technique. First, we divide the whole population into different groups based on income levels. Thus, whenever we observe that a population differs widely in the possession of a characteristic, we may prefer to divide it into different strata and then select one sample from each stratum. We can divide the population on the basis of any characteristic, such as income, expenditure, sex, education, race, employment, or family size.Cluster Sampling: Sometimes the target population is scattered over a wide geographical area. Consequently, if a simple random sample is selected, it may be costly to contact each member of the sample. In such a case, we divide the population into different geographical groups or clusters and as a first step select a random sample of certain clusters from all clusters. We then take a random sample of certain elements from each selected cluster. For example, suppose we are to conduct a survey of households in the state f New York. First, we divide the whole state of New York into, say, 40 regions, which are called clusters or primary units. We make sure that all clusters are similar and, hence, representative of the population. We then select at random, say, 5 clusters from 40. Next, we randomly select certain households from each of these 5 clusters and conduct a survey of these selected households. This is calle d cluster sampling. Note that all clusters must be representative of the population.